A view from the Bridge Essay Example for Free

A view from the Bridge Essay Eddie Carbone is in love with his niece by marriage, Catherine or Katie as he affectionately calls her. He has bought up the orphaned child as his own, loved her unconditionally. However, on the cusp of womanhood he has fallen in love with her, something he cannot admit to himself, as it is too terrible to acknowledge. The first clue to this unlawful love is his obsessive concern for her appearance Katie, you are walkin wavy! I dont like the looks theyre givin you in the candy store. And with them new high heels on the sidewalk clack, clack, clack. The heads are turnin like windmills. Without realising quite why he has done it, he has delayed her oncoming womanhood by keeping her at school and secretarial college. This way he can protect her from external influences keeping her wings clipped. This is why he is so keen to dissuade her from taking a job offered to her. I know shell be in the office but that aint what I had in mind We are afforded here a confirmation of the tragedy that is likely to unfold by the way Eddies wife; Beatrice reacts to Eddies dismay at Katies first steps to freedom. We feel her sense of urgency in her attempting to put distance between Katie and Eddie, she remonstrates with Eddie I dont understand you; shes seventeen years old you gonna keep her in the house all her life? To re enforce our understanding of Eddies true feelings another character fills us in on ensuring drama. This part belongs to Alfieri the lawyer / narrator of the play who in the traditional tragedy takes the part of the Greek chorus. More educated and yet part of the community, he tries to forestall the inevitably tragic ending even though he knows he is powerless to stop it. As the play progresses a monstrous change creeps up on Eddie. He is violently opposed to this romance between Rudolpho and Catherine. Eddie is not intelligent enough to realise that this opposition is not motivated, as he thinks, by a dislike of the boy and the suspicion that he is a homosexual. Not even the Alfieri can persuade Eddie to let go of the girl. Most ancient tragedies have a recognition scene wherein self-realisation dawns on the protagonist, in this case Eddie as it happened with Oedipus Rex. All of Shakespeares tragedies have recognition scenes. In this play there is no formal recognition scene. Only after Eddie has given Marco and Rudolpho up to the immigration service and he knows that he is facing certain death, due to his jealous desperate behaviour, does he begin to realise his faults and this is when the recognition scene takes place. This is similar in Millers A Death of a Salesman. He is adamant about wanting his name back, and he knows that he is in an impossible situation so he sees no other way out, and this is when everything comes crashing down around Eddie because he realises what he has done and cannot change anything. In my opinion what makes this play such an important and textbook modern tragedy is the way the viewer or reader is made aware of the inevitability of a tragic outcome given the setting and cast of characters. We are aware of the importance of name to the Italians, and the system men are judged by in the ethnic group in America. As Eddie loses more and more control over his feelings for Katie and thereby causing the problem to worsen he is in desperate need of some other focus, hence the significance of his blinding desire to clear his name of traitor which Marco has accused him of being. He feels if this can be sorted out so will his life. Hes gonna take that back, hes gonna take that back of Ill kill him! You hear me? Ill kill him! Ill kill him. This point is further emphasised by Eddies point blank refusal to accept Rodolphos apology which would help to sort things out. Eddie knows that if he and Rodolpho were seen to have made up that things between Marco and Eddie may possibly be patched up. Eddies near hysterical response is I want my name! He didnt take my name; hes only a punk. Marcos got my name By refusing the option that would have diffused the situation, the way is cleared for the inevitable outcome, his sense of self righteousness over Marco taking his name obscures his vision as to the real villainy of the piece his wrongful love for Catherine. The audience now knows that he truly would rather die than admit his true feelings showed in his horrified utterance of Beatrice in response to her accusation of you want somethin else Eddie, and you can never have her! The outcome of this disaster is one man killed, one facing deportation and therefore financial ruin for his family. Two families are ruined. All this has come about from the combination of one mans psychological make up and the circumstances ensuing from his social background. A truly modern tragedy. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.

Link Between Forgetting, Distortion, And Repression Of Memories

Link Between Forgetting, Distortion, And Repression Of Memories Cognitive psychologists and neuroscience researchers have proposed theories that explain why people forget, distort, or repress memories. From a historical perspective, Freuds contributions on the topic of memory offered insights into the concept of forgetfulness and repression (Knafo, 2009). According to Knafo, forgetfulness stems from intentionally repressing unwanted memories to avoid emotional distress. Even though forgetfulness may be intentional, unintentional forgetting of memories is frustrating. Forgetfulness can result from retrieval-induced forgetting or contextual differentiation (Lehman Malmberg, 2009; Storm, Bjork, Bjork, 2008). Forgetting effects based on the theory of interference can block or distort memories due to emotional distress (Smith Moynan, 2008). Camp, Pecher, Schmidt, and Zeelenberg (2009) argued that interference theories and inhibition theories create forgetting. Studies by Schneider and Dixon (2009) on the construction of memories indicated that disr uptions in the short-term working memory interfere with maintaining memories for later retrieval. In contrast, Fabiani, Low, Wee, Sable, and Gratton (2006) argued that memory decay due to ineffective filtering of sensory information causes forgetfulness. Memory retention can be subject to memory hazards caused by proactive or retroactive interference consequences (Chechile, 2006). Even though an individual encodes information properly, some memories are subject to interference or decay during the retrieval processing (Wixted, 2005). Wixted posited that the long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmissions in the hippocampus maintains memories and contributes to memory distortion when damaged. MacLeod and Saunders (2008) linked memory retrieval to memory distortion through an inhibitory induced mechanism. Inhibitions to avoid certain memories induce forgetting which can lead to distorted memories. Memory malfunction affect memory recall (Loftus, 2003). As Renk, Donnelly, McKinney, and Baksh (2007) pointed out, misattribution, suggestibility, and bias effects distort memories. Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) argued that memories are reconstructions of schemas of past events. Memory failure distorts the information if encoding processes fail to describe the event with accuracy. False memories of repressed events result in a decline of memory accuracy over time (Brainerd, Reyna, Ceci, 2008). Although false memories can be harmless such as misremembering the name of a prior boyfriend, there are sources of harmful false memories. Memories vary in terms of their vividness. Perceptions, contexts, emotions, and cognition can produce familiarity. Fuzzier memories are phantom recollections of events that seem to be accurate but are susceptible to misinformation (Lampien, Meier, Arnal, Leding, 2005). Aminoff, Schacter, and Bar (2008) contended that people embed objects in memory with other objects of similar contexts, which activates the cortical network system in the brain responsible for processing and retrieving information. Brainerd et al. (2008) discussed the shift of false memories over time that leads to misinformation of data. Studies show that misinformation about fuzzy events can lead to suggestibility of eyewitness memories (Brainerd et al., 2008; Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). People who have experienced unpleasant encounters often repress or inhibit their experiences in order to avoid anxiety (Garssen, 2007). McNally, Clancy, Barrett, Parker, Ristuccia, and Perlman (2006) posited that abused children repress their memories in an effort to forget the traumatic event. Repression describes the tendency to inhibit negative feelings associated with unpleasant experiences in order to eliminate any threats to a persons self-image (Garssen, 2007). Garssen investigated the voluntary suppression of negative emotions as a coping mechanism to control and protect the inner self. Rofà © (2008) focused on clarifying what people remember or forget. People have a tendency to forget trauma. Rofà © argued that people do remember traumatic experiences but choose to repress such memories as an innate instinct to protect their wellbeing. From a neurobiological perspective, Anderson et al. (2004) discovered that reduced hippocampus activation suppresses unwanted memories. In addition, Buchanan (2007) posited that the neural connections in the amygdala in conjunction with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex play a role in the retrieval of emotional experiences. Definitions In reviewing the influences that forgetting, distortion, and repression has on memory, it is important to define these terms in order to clarify the relationship between encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Forgetting refers to the failure to retain previously encoded information in memory. Often cue-overload in memory storage prevents previously stored information from reaching consciousness (Wixted, 2005). Distorted memories refer to forgetting the actual details of prior experiences or events. Factors such as the encoding specificity of events, cue manipulation of events stored in memory, and retrieval cues can change the context of prior memories (Buchanan, 2007). Cognitive psychologists refer to this phenomenon as false recognition or false memories (Aminoff et al., 2008). Loftus (2003) described false memories as inaccurate recollections of events stored in long-term memory that people distort when recalled. Repression focuses on forgotten traumatic memories that peopl e tend to suppress in their long-term memory to avoid recalling expressive negative emotions that harm their self-image and self-worth (Garssen, 2007). Piper, Lillevik, and Kritzer (2008) argued that repressing harrowing memories is an unwilling and automatic process out of conscious awareness as soon as an unpleasant event happens. For repression to occur, a person must first encode the event but be unable to recall the event (Piper et al., 2008). Based on the information provided in the above-mentioned articles and the definitions of terms, a connection between forgetting, distortion, and repression of memories may explain the intricacies and complexities of memories in everyday life. People do forget certain memories but there may be a link between what memories a person forgets, what memories become distorted and what memories are repressed. Forgetting Knafo (2009) contended that Freuds interest in the functioning of memory played an important role in current theories and findings. Freud distinguished forgetfulness from repression by stressing its defensive nature. Repression refers to the banishing of distressing memories from consciousness to avoid emotional distress. According to Knafo, neuroscience research supports Freuds idea of repression. The right frontal lobe prevents painful memories from entering the left hemisphere to be processed and stored (Knafo, 2009). In essence, people want to forget the memories that cause distress. Although such memories are intentionally forgotten or repressed, Lehman and Malmberg (2009) discussed the relationship between intentional and unintentional forgetting. According to Lehman and Malmberg (2009), free recall is the memory task that unintentionally frustrates people. The differential rehearsal hypothesis states that changing the encoding procedures through improved rehearsal techniques should enhance recall. However, the inhibition hypothesis in a retrieval-induced forgetting domain affects recall in both unintentional and intentional situations. Retrieval-induced forgetting results from a temporary incapability to recall items from memory (Lehman Malmberg, 2009). Storm et al. (2008) hypothesized that the retrieval strength not the storage strength reduces recall. Intentionally inhibiting items from memory during retrieval creates intentional forgetting of that item while unintentional inhibition of items interferes with the recall of other items (Storm et al., 2008). Items in memory have two separate strengths. The storage strength denotes the interconnection between items in memory while the retrieval strength embodies the accessibil ity of items in memory at any given time and in certain contexts (Storm et al., 2008). The contextual differentiation hypothesis states that forgetting depends on the changes in the context during encoding. Recall depends on the persons ability to restore appropriate context cues, which reduces forgetting effects (Lehman Malmberg, 2009). For example, to recall a misplaced item, a person needs to reconstruct a mental representation of the environment in order to recall where he or she placed the item. However, in emotional situations people can block memories of items or events during retrieval to reduce distress (Smith Moynan, 2008). Smith and Moynan (2008) hypothesized that there are individual distinctions in vulnerability to forgetting effects. Individuals tend to remember emotional experiences more readily than unemotional events. When given a list of emotional violent words, traumatized individuals experienced unintentional forgetting. Interference and inhibition can invoke long-term forgetting. According to Smith and Moynan, providing appropriate independent cues reverses these effects. Their studies indicated that after giving participants emotionally laden cues, it induced a reversal of forgotten memories (Smith Moynan, 2008). To make a distinction between interference and inhibition effects, Camp et al. (2009) hypothesized that recall depends on the relationship between items when competing for retrieval. A competing relationship between items decreases the strength between the cue and target item, which interferes with memory retrieval. Interference in the retrieval of memories decreases retrieval time and creates forgetting (Camp et al., 2009). In contrast, inhibition effects are not cue dependent. Forgetting occurs even after the presentation of cues because people can actively control items in memory and can inhibit certain memories from reaching consciousness. Despite the cues used to access items, people forget these memories (Camp et al., 2009). Similarly, Schneider and Dixon (2009) argued that disruptions in short-term working memory could impede retrieval of items in memory. Mental representations of complex tasks require individuals to eliminate any distracters during retrieval. These interrupti on effects symbolize the time needed to restore mental representations of the tasks into short-term memory, which reduces forgetting and increases comprehension. Thus, suggesting the visuospatial cues are important in maintaining retrieval accuracy (Schneider Dixon, 2009). In contrast, Fabiani et al. (2006) posited that items in memory decay over time. As people age, their working memory capacity becomes overloaded with information which effects memory. The decay theory emphasizes a reduction in attention control based on complex cognitive performances. Fabiani et al. argued that memory decay is due to a reduction in filtering irrelevant sensory information rather than decline in sensory processing due to age. The ineffective filtering combined with reduced attention control creates problems in the working memory, which in turn increases forgetting (Fabiani et al., 2006). Chechile (2006) expanded on the decay theory by examining memory hazards in retention of information. Decline in memory retention and memory span indicates improper encoding procedures caused by either proactive (before learning) or retroactive (after learning) interference (Chechile, 2006). Wixted (2005) argued that failure to encode novel information induces forgetting. An alternative explanation for the interference theory and decay theory posited by Wixted (2005) is a lack of memory consolidation. Neuroscience research suggests that memories are susceptible to disruption during consolidation. Encoding memories involves the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron, which causes the postsynaptic neuron to fire. This chaining of events known as the LTP mechanism responds to presynaptic neuron stimulation in the hippocampus (Wixted, 2005). Wixted posited that induced stimulation of the LPT in the hippocampus from drugs or alcohol serves as interference for forming new memories, causes forgetfulness of an earlier learned task, and impairs LTP maintenance. Alcohol and drugs can interfere with the encoding process that prevents memory consolidation by blocking memory formation and inducing forgetting. From a psychopharmacological perspective, Wixted contended that interference to the hippocampal LTP causes a failure of new memory to form (a nterograde amnesia) or impairs previously formed memories (retrograde amnesia) in the consolidation process of memories. Wixted hypothesized that memory consolidation after the encoding process is subject to interference based on storage decay and retrieval overload during the retention stage, which may be the cause of forgetfulness. From a neuroscience research and psychopharmacology perspective, poor memory consolidations and retention can provoke forgetting or memory distortion (Wixted, 2005). Distorted or False Memories MacLeod and Saunders (2008) hypothesized that people rely on their memories to solve everyday problems. Because todays social world is constantly changing, people need to update their memories continuously. In order to update memories, individuals have to revise their old memories with new information. However, the problem lies in determining what information is relevant. Redundant information may be necessary to solve future problems. Therefore, there is a need to retain both old and new information. The interrelationship between episodic memory of knowing where and when events happened and semantic memory of general knowledge content can create problems when accessing prior events or experiences. The retrieval-induced forgetting mechanism that inhibits unwanted memories from entering consciousness is different from the traditional interference and decay theories (MacLeod Saunders, 2008). MacLeod and Saunders argued that retrieval inhibition underlies the misinformation paradigm. F or example, when updating old memories with new memories, people tend to distort their memories when they include misleading information during the encoding process (MacLeod Saunders, 2008). MacLeod and Saunders concluded that if people activate the inhibitory mechanism during the memory retrieval process, then the new misleading information replaces the original information, which distorts memories. Their research indicates that eyewitness reports are susceptible to post-event suggestions. Loftus (2003) also studied the effects of distorted memories when recalling prior events. According to Loftus, eyewitness informants are susceptible to suggestibility and biases of misinformation. The misinformation effect can affect memories when questioning informants in a suggestive manner (Loftus, 2003). Misinformation about an actual event can influence a persons perception of that event. Planting false memories of an event exposes individuals to believing something happened when in reality it did not happen. As Loftus pointed out, peoples memories are fragile and influenced by their thoughts, by what someone has told them or led them to believe. By reinventing memories, people become the person in their own imagination because their memories have malfunctioned (Loftus, 2003). Renk et al. (2007) expanded on the memory malfunction occurrence in everyday life that affects a persons ability to recall events. Using Schacters theory of memory distortion, Renk et al. contended that misattribution, suggestibility, and biases could distort memories. The misattribution effect assigns a memory to an erroneous source or to an event that did not occur. For example, individuals who have a fuzzy recollection of an event may recall facts but misattribute the facts by linking prior experiences together to form a whole picture. Even though the event is easy to recall, it may never have happened. In addition, incorporating suggestions by other people into their memories can distort the facts (Loftus, 2003; Renk et al., 2007). Suggestibility can greatly influence eyewitness testimonies (Loftus, 2003). The questioning of eyewitnesses during an investigation or trial can lead people to believe facts that did not happen by suggestions of misleading information. Misinformation o f facts by the media or other biased accounts can influence people into believing something happened (Loftus, 2003). In this situation, bias refers to recall of events that support a persons beliefs (Renk et al., 2007).. Renk et al. (2007) discussed various types of biases that distort memories. Consistency biases promote the recall of prior beliefs to be similar to current beliefs. Hindsight biases interconnect current knowledge with past knowledge, which makes people think they knew all along what happened but simply forgot. Egocentric biases use self-enhancing mechanisms to recall prior events. Stereotypical biases manipulate memories and perceptional awareness based on diverse social cultures (Renk et al., 2007). The false memory or distorted memory phenomenon suggests that the recall of fuzzy memories is outside the control of conscious memory, which can induce forgotten, distorted or false memories (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) implied that discrepancies between forgotten memories and recovered memories are debatable. Memories of memorable prior events are more likely to be remembered that memories of traumatic experiences. People store interpretations of ambiguous situations in previously formed schemas. Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker contended that the Fuzzy Trace Theory (FTT) incorporates two memory traces, which explains the false memory phenomenon. Verbatim traces refer to the actual physical stimuli while the gist traces puts meaning to the stimuli. Because verbatim traces decline quicker, false memories increase through the gist traces. Memory errors occur when improper encoding procedures do not separate episodic memories from gist information. As a result, memory distortion occurs because the encoding specificity failed to portray an episodic event with accuracy (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). Brainerd et al. (2008) believed that false memories are due to a decline in episodic memories. As time passes, events get fuzzier. The FTT measures the accuracy of events by administering recall tests. After giving participants misleading information about an event, they tended to distort their recollection of that event (Brainerd et al., 2008). For example, suggesting that a thief may have worn gloves and a hat elicits the illusion of a thief wearing gloves and a hat when in reality neither item may have been a fact. Brainerd et al. referred to this phenomenon as gist traces that induces perceptual inaccuracies and can lead to wrongful convictions of innocent people. Lampien et al. (2005) argued that memories vary in content but familiarity of content produces vivid false memories. Content borrowing of similar items can activate perceptions of similarity. If items share similar perceptual contexts, people integrate their perceptions to create new memories that tend to be false. Lampien et al. referred to this experience as phantom recollections of events that borrow content from previous similar perceptions, contexts, emotions, or thoughts. As a result, familiarity produces memory inaccuracies or false memories (Lampien et al., 2005). Aminoff et al. (2008) argued that object familiarity creates associations that predict what a person expects to see in a contextual setting within their environment. For example, seeing an object such as a desk activates visual representations of other items such as a computer or books that share the same context of items in an office. Aminoff et al. conducted several studies that investigated the cortical network activity in the brain. They hypothesized that increased activity in the cortical area elicits object familiarity of contextually related items, which in turn increases the possibility of falsely recognizing items as related. By using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, Aminoff et al. were able to examine whether context affected the old to new memory recognition performance. The results indicated that the cortical regions that process contextually related items include the retrosplenial complex (RSC), the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), and the parahippocam pal cortex (PHC) which increases in activity when participants viewed strong contextually related items. As a result, Aminoff et al. contended that people tend to store memories within a context frame, which contains prototypes of particular items. The RSC processes information is more of a gist context which interferes with the old to new responses and contributes to memory distortion as proposed by Brainerd et al. (2008) (Aminoff et al., 2008). The current trends in the study of distorted or false memories suggest that memories are vulnerable to many mitigating factors. As Steffens and Mecklenbrà ¤uker (2007) pointed out, research on the reconstructive nature of events stored in memory is mental representations of events and experiences. People use existing schemas or prototypes as a guide for storage and retrieval of memories. To solve everyday problems, people make inferences about prior experiences and relate those experiences to the current situation (Steffens Mecklenbrà ¤uker, 2007). However, if prior experiences caused trauma, Garssen (2007) hypothesized that people tend to repress or inhibit these memories to minimize distress. Repressed Memories Repression describes the desire for people to inhibit memories of unpleasant experiences to protect their positive self-image from threat. According to Garssen (2007), repressed memories can be conscious or unconscious avoidance of prior negative emotional occurrences. In some situations, people may be aware they consciously inhibit unwanted memories but empirical research shows most repressed memories are unconscious coping techniques to avoid anxiety. People who use repressive coping styles tend to distort information and make false conclusions (Garssen, 2007). McNally et al. (2006) hypothesized that repressive individuals have trouble in retrieving unpleasant situations such as child abuse. Because these individuals fail to remember specific abusive occurrences but experience related symptoms of abuse, they infer that abuse happened and simply forget the abusive situations. Their findings suggest that people who forget or suppress traumatic experiences have more difficulty in acce ssing those memories (McNally et al., 2006). Piper et al. (2008) argued that suppression and repression of traumatic experiences have separate and different meanings. For example, suppression means to defer unwanted memories from consciousness (McNally et al., 2006) while repression operates unconsciously to bury memories from reaching the conscious mind (Piper et al., 2008). Piper et al. contended that scientific research on the recovered memory phenomenon lacks credibility. Repression theorists claim that traumatized people fail to remember certain details of the event (partial amnesia), simply forget details, and deliberately avoid thinking about the event. Piper et al. believe these premises are flawed. Studies show that people do recall the essential details of harrowing experiences very vividly. The trauma experienced is usually so severe that people seldom forget which refutes the everyday forgetting phenomenon. In addition, if people intentional avoid thinking of the event they are suppressing the event not repressing t he event as mentioned in the above definitions. Piper et al. argued that traumatic experiences are no different from ordinary experiences. Memory recall works by assembling the neurons in the brain that represent memory to reconstruct a mental representation. The memory process of encoding, storage, and retrieval operate the same for any type of information, which a person can modify or reorganize before and after the encoding procedure. Piper et al. believed that this analysis supports the claim that science fails to support the repressed memory phenomenon. Although repression of memories has been a debatable topic among psychologists, Rofà © (2008) argued that repression is a valid concept. Research findings suggest that people are motivated to forget trauma intentionally. As Rofà © pointed out, intentional forgetting of trauma does not necessarily mean using repressive coping mechanisms but unintentional forgetting is susceptible to defensive coping mechanisms. He contended that repression is a multidimensional component comprised of memory, pathogenic effects, and unconsciousness. Memories of traumatic experiences overwhelm most people and motivate forgetting. As a result, people experience a type of amnesia to deal with trauma. Pathogenic effects focus on the distortions of memories that protect wellbeing. Inhibiting emotions is beneficial to a persons physiological and psychological wellness. Unconsciousness is a powerful cognitive system that protects a persons wellbeing and controls the pathogenic effects of repression (Rofà © , 2008). Garssen (2007) hypothesized that people do use repressive and defensive mechanisms to deal with unwanted memories. From a conceptual perspective, repression and anxiety defenses are coping strategies people use to prevent psychological harm. Garssen referred to repression as a tendency to act or cope within the environment in a certain manner to protect a persons self-image from harm, thus, supporting the theory that repression may be unconscious techniques to reduce distress. Although Freud suggested repression included a voluntary suppression of unwanted memories from conscious awareness, Anderson et al. (2004) proposed that neural systems within the brain control repression. From a neurobiological perspective, the hippocampus activates successful memory recollection of subjective experiences or events. In order to suppress these memories, the lateral prefrontal cortex must disengage the hippocampal activation (Anderson et al., 2004). During fMRI scans, Anderson et al. had participants deliberately suppress memories. The results indicated that the control mechanisms in the prefrontal cortex reduced the hippocampal activation, which in turn inhibited memory recall. Momentary interruptions of intrusive memory recall triggered the executive control to override retrieval of unwanted memories. Anderson et al. posited the theory that a neurobiological representation of memory helps people to control their memories in order to adjust their cognitive assessments of traumatic events. Buchanan (2007) argued that cognitive neuroscience research suggests that the amygdala enhances emotional memories. The retrieval of mood-congruent autobiographical memories increases the neural activity in the amygdala as well as the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. The interconnection of the functional activity in these neural structures during the retrieval process triggers the recollection of emotional memories. According to Buchanan, the amygdala does not store unwanted memories but rater stimulates other neural networks to retrieve these memories to be experienced again. In essence, the interconnected activities of various neural networks elicit an affective state similar to the original experience. Thus, emotions do play an integral part in altering memory recall during the retrieval stage. From a neurobiological perspective, the neural networks associated with emotion affect how a person remembers an unpleasant event. Conclusion The current studies presented in this article on memory indicate that there may be a link between forgetting, distortion, and repression of memories. Freuds discoveries revealed the persistent consequence and complexities of memories (Anderson et al., 2004; Knafo, 2009). Research into theories that explain nature of memories and their role in everyday life have contributed to finding better ways to understanding the relationship between different aspects of memory. Forgotten memories caused by retrieval-induced mechanisms limits memory recall (Lehman Malmberg, 2009: Storm et al., 2008). The interference, inhibition, and decay theories explain blocked memories, which induce forgetting (Camp et al., 2009; Chechile, 2006; Fabiani et al., 2006; Schneider Dixon, 2009). If prior memories fail to enter consciousness, misinformation of facts may result in memory distortion. Distorted memories or false memories result from the forgotten memories of prior experiences, which people change to fit present situations. The misinformation effect creates memory malfunctions and distorts memories (Loftus, 2003; MacLeod Saunders, 2008; Renk et al., 2007). Inhibiting memories from entering consciousness creates repression Wixted, 2005). Repressed memories may be memories intentionally forgotten or distorted to relieve anxiety (Garssen, 2007; McNally et al., 2006; Rofà ©, 2008; Smith Moynan, 2008); Storm et al., 2008). From a neurobiological perspective, the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex are the main parts of the brain that play an important role in how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved (Aminoff et al., 2008; Anderson et al., 2004; Buchanan, 2007; Knafo, 2009; Wixted, 2005). The connection between neural network functions as posited by Wixted, explains how people forget memories that have not be consolidated properly during the encoding procedure which interferes with the retention, storage, and retrieval of previously learned tasks. Aminoff et al. implied that items stored in memory are subject to increased activity in the cortical regions, which can distort memories. Both Anderson et al. and Buchanan posited that neural activity control the retrieval of information. Highly emotional events may be more susceptible to an increase in neural activity, which may modify the retrieval process of cognitive assessments. The evidence presented in this paper provides a possible explanation for the link between forgotten, distorted, and repressed memories. Future studies on the psychological and neurobiological factors that cause memory failures may give cognitive psychologists a better understanding of the relationship and implications that different aspects of memory has on problem solving and psychological wellbeing in everyday life. Memories affect actions and changing actions creates social change.

How to say no Summary :: essays research papers

Chapter 1- Saying No: The Basics In the first chapter of How to Say No Without Feeling Guilty, the authors present the basics of saying no. But why say no? Many times people are persuaded into doing things they don’t want to do, simply because they can’t find the right words to say no. Another reason why people don’t say no is because they are afraid of what the person will think of them if they say no. I can understand this, because many times I have found myself doing things for people because I couldn’t think of a good excuse to get myself out. After reading the first chapter, I learned the basic techniques to politely saying no. The first one is surprisingly simple—just buy more time. If you can put off your decision to accepting a request from someone, you then have the time to really think about what it will take to satisfy the other person. One of the phrases they suggested was, â€Å"I need to find out if I work first†. As a college student, my work schedule is anyth ing but consistent, so that phrase will be great for me to use. Another suggestion was to say you have a â€Å"policy† against doing something. It’s good because it lets the person know how important it is to do what you need to do. But for me, I don’t think this would be any good, because my friends wouldn’t buy the fact that I have a â€Å"policy†. The prevention technique seemed like it would be a good one. I have a friend who whenever I see, he always wants to go out to a bar and drink. I normally don’t mind, but if I go over to visit him and I’m not in the mood to go out, he will insist that we go anyways. Prevention would be good in this case because if I don’t feel like going out that night, I should probably just avoid this friend entirely. Lying to someone in order not to hurt them, or the face-saving excuse is also a good tactic. If an unattractive girl were to ask me out, I wouldn’t tell her no because I thought she was unattractive. I would probably tell her that I have a lot of work to do for the next couple of months, and I don’t really have time to be going out with her.

A Rose For Emily: Fallen From Grace :: essays research papers fc

A Rose for Emily: Fallen from Grace A comparative essay on the use of symbolism in William Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily." Authors traditionally use symbolism as a way to represent the sometimes intangible qualities of the characters, places, and events in their works. In his short story "A Rose for Emily," William Faulkner uses symbolism to compare the Grierson house with Emily Grierson's physical deterioration, her shift in social standing, and her reluctancy to accept change. When compared chronologically, the Grierson house is used to symbolize Miss Emily's physical attributes. In its prime, the Grierson house is described as "white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsome style of the seventies" (Faulkner 69). This description suggests that the house was built not only for function, but also to impress and engage the attention of the other townspeople. Similarly, the wealthy women of the era, Emily Grierson not withstanding, were dressed in a conspicuous manner. This, for the most part, is because their appearance was perceived as a direct reflection on their husbands and/or fathers. This display of extravagance was egotistically designed by men to give an impression of wealth to onlookers. Emily was regarded by her father as property. Her significance to him was strongly ornamental, just as their overly lavish home was. As the plot progresses, the reader is clearly made aware of the physical decline of both the house and Miss Emily. Just as the house is described as "smelling of dust and disuse," evidence of Emily's own aging is given when her voice in similarly said to be "harsh, and rusty, as if from disuse" (70-74). Ultimately, at the time of Emily's death, the house is seen by the townspeople as "an eyesore among eyesores," and Miss Emily is regarded as a "fallen monument" (69). Both are empty, and lifeless. Neither are even remotely representative of their former splendor. Just as their physical characteristics, Faulkner uses the Grierson house as a symbol for Miss Emily's change in social status. In its prime, the house was "big," and "squarish," and located on Jefferson's "most select street" (69). This description gives the reader the impression that the residence was not only extremely solid, but also larger than life, almost gothic in nature, and seemingly impervious to the petty problems of the common people. The members of the Grierson family, especially Emily, were also considered to be strong and powerful. The townspeople regarded them as regal. And Emily, as the last living Grierson, came to symbolize her family's, and possibly the entire south's, rich past. The townspeople's reveration of Emily soon decayed, however, once it

William Blakes London Essay -- William Blake London Poem Poetry Ess

William Blake's "London" Works Cited Not Included William Blake's "London" is a representative of English society as a whole, and the human condition in general that outlines the socio-economic problems of the time and the major communal evils. It condemns authoritative institutions including the military, royalty, new industries, and the Church. Blake's tone creates a feeling of informative bitterness, and is both angry and despondent at the suffering and increasing corruption of London's society. Blake's sophisticated use of notation like capitalization, his specific change in meter, and the point of view all clearly develop London.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The point of view in which Blake employs to London is significant to the understanding of the poem. Blake chooses to give the poem a persona, a person who appears to have extensive knowledge of the city and helps give credibility to the poem. (Foster, 1924) The use of first person in all three stanzas allows the poem to be more opinionated and less objective, drawing the reader's attention by making it more personal. Blake's London is to be the reader's London as well. In addition to point of view, Blake further sophisticates his piece by presenting specific tone to each section of the poem. Blake sets the tone early in the poem by using the word charter?d which shows the condition of London as repressive. The speaker refers to the people or ?faces? he meets with ?Marks of weakness, marks of woe.? This diction advocates the probability of the city being controlled by a higher authority. The faces of the people, or the face of society reveals the feelings of entra pment and misery in the population. This in itself could propose, "humanity itself is being commercialized" (Damon, 1965). One of the interesting aspects of Blake's poetry is the layers of meaning his words connote.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Blake's advanced use of notation is evident through his utilization of capitalizing specific words to emphasize a point. Capitalization is repeatedly used in "London" to stress a higher meaning than the literal interpretation. Blake's use of the phrase ?every Man? again alludes to Blake?s intention that the poem represents not just the common, man but also, common society. Similarly the title "London" is used to represent the state of English society and to symbolizes the condition of every human society (Hirsch Jr., 1964) Aga... ...en with gonorrhea and other diseases, which blinded the newborn babies (Damon, 1965) Hence the diction ?Blast the new-born Infants tear?. The poem reaches its climax as the speaker exposes the infants who were born into poverty. When Blake uses the contradicting phrase ?Marriage hearse? in the last line it is significant because he combines something good with something bad (Lambert Jr., 1995) Blake proposes the possibility that as long as powerful institutions corrupt society, marriage is always cursed. Even though the joy of a new life is present, the fact that the child is born into a corrupt and evil society is discouraging. Blake suggests to the reader that until there is change this loop will continue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ?London? is a poem of serious social satire directed against social institutions. According to Blake author Michael Phillips ?it is a poem whose moral realism is so severe that it is raised to the intensity of apocalyptic vision.? Blake becomes more specific in his descriptions of the prevalent evil and moral decay of society as the poem progresses. Blake?s informative nature is clearly evident in ?London? as he ?points the finger? and exposes powerful institutions.

The Rise of Hitler

The Nazi party first started after WWI when a group of unemployed German men. They were known as â€Å"The German Workers Party (GWP). † Adolf Hitler joined the group in 1919 and quick rose to a high ranking leader. His rise to the top of the GWP was due to his powerful speeches. Despite the ability of his speaking he often used it to promote national pride, militarism, and a racially â€Å"pure† Germany. After Hitler’s rise to leadership he changed the name to â€Å"The National Socialist German Workers’ which was referred to as â€Å"The Nazi Party†.Hitler tried to overthrow the government with the Nazi Party, but had no success. This leads up to his election as chancellor of Germany. While incarcerated, Hitler wrote a book called Mein Kampf, which established a foundation for the beliefs of the Nazi party. After its publication, Hitler could truly grow an army of supporters. According to the narrator’s of â€Å"World at War† After Hitler’s release he quickly pursued a political campaign for chancellor.This provided him with a chance to persuade more of the German public that they needed to condemn all Jews. He brought food and water to the poor, which help with the growth of The Nazi party and his supporters. According the text in â€Å"A Teachers Guide to The Holocaust† Hitler also began create subgroups for specific Germans such as, children, women, doctor’s, etc. Hitler’s attempt was also short lived because they lost the election.Years later after gaining more supports the Nazi Party prevailed and took over Germany due to Hindenburg’s new Government. This allowed Hitler to carry out his plan to rid the world of all Jewish people. In 1938 Germany started to ban Jews from most places. In 1942 the Germans decided it was time to take action start with their plan called â€Å"the final solution† which leads to the founding of concentration camps and the holocaust. The Germans quickly formed alliances with Italy, USSR, and Japan.Despite the alliance Japan created more problems for the Nazi party by attacking America without a declaration of war. After the attacks on Pearl Harbor America had officially joined the war against the Germans in WW2. America’s involvement created the Unfortunately Hitler’s ambition drove him to commit treason against Russia, which was Germany’s biggest ally at the time. Despite the Germany advantage of surprise they could not defeat the Soviets. America capitalized on Germany’s mistake by forming a brief alliance with Russia.

Income for College Football Athletes Essay

College football athletes have been selling their jerseys, selling signature footballs, and committing crimes in order to be able to feed and support themselves financially to survive in the real world. Student athletes don’t have enough time on their hands to work during the season or during off season workouts. It’s considered a year round sport due to the fact that in offseason, college football players in training to stay in shape for the return of their upcoming season in the fall. Football takes up more than half of their daily time each year. Maintaining a steady grade point average is often enforced because of the demands held by the football program. Should football receive income while on a scholarship? Football athletes should get paid, not necessarily as professionals, paid every game, but at least to receive some form of money to help increase their monthly pay. They should be paid because college football players are making money based off of their perform ance, football athletes are compensated for free education while 70% percent of the athletes don’t even graduate, football consumes too much of the athlete’s time, and are exposing their selves daily to serious injuries that may lead up to a paralyzed body or as far as death. College football and basketball for years have been the highest producing revenue sports in NCAA. More than $470 million in new money poured into major college athletics programs last year, boosting spending on sports, even though we’re in rough economic times. Most of the money made in athletics revenue was because elevation in money generated through multi-media rights deals, donations and ticket receipts, but schools also continued increasing their subsidies from student fees and institutional funds (Berkowitz). Helping with the success of revenues in schools are wins by football teams and basketball teams. 6.2 billion was spent in 2010 on athletics at 218 schools and spending grew by 3% while revenue grew by 5.5%. Money spent on athletics was equated to make a good amount of profit. Could this profit be distributed to the performers? In the years of sports in NCAA revenue, media agreements have created about 86 percent of revenue while the other 14 percent was made from ch ampionships ticket sales. Where does the money go? It is distributed directly to the Division 1 membership. 60 percent of NCAA revenue is distributed to Division 1 members which, in 2009-2010, totaled to a little more than $433 million (where does the money go?). Some of the distribution is used for particular uses, such as academic support or those that meet special student athlete needs. Most of the money is distributed to scholarships and sports sponsorships. These funds are paid to conference offices and divided among conference institutions. The common uses of the money would be for salaries, financial aid for student athletes, and facility maintenance and travel. Only some of the 60 percent is used for the athletes which pays for the tuition and living expenses. NCAA in the article â€Å"Where does the money go?† states that their revenue is relatively small part of the overall intercollegiate athletics fiscal structure. NCAA research estimates the college athletics spend about 10.5 billion annua lly. Overall annual revenue for college athletics programs is 10.6 billion. NCAA total expenses for 2009-2010 were 707.2 million. Schools are making profit off of the athletic programs and NCAA are just an helping hand. The schools are a big impact in budget managing. According to khan, college football and college men’s basketball generate professional level revenues. 757 million in 1999 were total ticket revenues for football and men’s basketball. The broadcast revenue from NCAA of all football, in season and off season, exceeds professional basketball at 2.2 billion. In the modern day, has increased by 8 billion. The university of Louisville’s budget has grown from 52.4 million to 68.8 million from football and basketball revenue. Even other larger schools, winning conferences, are making more from the revenue. Millions and billions of dollars are generated by the players, media and ticket sales, but few are given to them. Without the players performing, there would be no money generated. Televised games are one of the key contributors to generating revenues. In 1950s until 1984 NCAA exerted complete control over college football telecasts. Randall Bennett and John Fizel present the analysis of competitive balance in NCAA division 1 College football after the supreme court ruling. Supreme Court argued that NCAA had been successful in preventing a â€Å"power elite† from developing in college football because of bigger schools being televised while smaller schools are at a disadvantage. The results were the winning percentages in conferences significantly declined in two conferences and increased in two other conferences. NCAA control over television wasn’t focused on generate equality of playing strength among division 1 football teams. The teams with the most wins were highly focused by the NCAA in televising. Television is very important in gaining wins and more attraction â€Å"Televising is more important than money† as quoted by the Supreme Court in Bennett and Fizel’s article. Money is the NCAA’s center point and though most of the money generated by the players, most of it is not necessary for the players. In addition to generating revenues, recruits and players are compensated for free education while only under 70 percent of football player’s graduate. Division 1 student athletes who entered college in 1994 were the ninth consecutive class that met higher initial-eligibility. Student athletes who entered college and received an athletics scholarship as a freshman in 1994 graduated at a rate of 58 percent (NCAA). â€Å"The data of this class of student-athletes continues the pattern set by previous classes of graduating at a rate one to two percent higher than the general student body. Student-athletes in the two classes prior to the new academic standards graduated at a rate one to two percent lower than the general student body† (NCAA). These showings are obvious in the determined average football player who will graduate. What is interesting is that graduating is the number one goal as coaching staff and NCAA emphasize to football athletes. Overall, graduation rates for freshman class entering in 1994 were the same as the year before. This class equaled the rates of the 1988 through 1990 classes, as well as the 1992 and 1993 classes. In 1968 study of all Michigan state university athletes over a five year period revealed that 49 percent of team sport and 60 percent of individual sport athletes had graduate. In 1976, less than 20 percent of football players who entered North Texas State University graduated with a degree (Purdy, Eitzen and Hufnagel). 24 percent in that time were the graduating rate fort football players. Division 1 football and men’s basketball players continue to lag behind in graduating rates among all athletes, but it has grown since then. In 2004-2005 statics by (division 1 athletes’ graduation rates) NCAA division 1 rates for all sports is 82 percent and football and basketball stand at 68 to 69 percent in graduating rates. It has grown yet still the average is inadequate to the standards stressed by NCAA and faculty. NCAA could at least boost up the income for college football athletes if graduation is a main goal stressed. Below three quarters are exceed in graduation rates. Football players are getting their tuition paid for free with an addition of 1,000 to 1,500 monthly incomes if they are living on their own. It sounds like a decent amount, but when you break it down it becomes frustrating for the individual to live off of it. The minimum wage in the United States is $7.25 (Cowan). UNLV football athletes with scholarships receive 12000 dollars monthly for 10 months. The yearly salary is 12,000 dollars. So in reality, only 1,000 is received for each month. The weekly pay is $250. For one day, an UNLV football athlete is paid $35.71. The hourly salary is $4.46. Are we really worth this amount? College football athletes take four classes just to be eligible. In addition to the four classes, from2:00 to 6:30 is all football relation in during seasons. Lifting twice a week is mandatory. Study hall is also mandatory for new comers and those who have failed to meet the requirements by the NCAA. In a whole, all your time is needed to meet the standards set by NCAA. Passing all your classes include, studying (2 hours) and taking 1 to 2 classes a day(2-4) hours, lifting weights (2 hours), studying football, means watching tapes (2 hours), football meetings (2 hours) and football practices( 2 and half hours). Mandatory Study hall consumes about an hour of your day. In all, 12 to 13 hours is taken up by football daily. The rest of the hours are used for sleep and break times. The full time schedules, homework’s, practice, and travel for road games are big burdens for athletes to find other sources of income. NCAA prohibits payments beyond educational scholarships and specified expenses to athletes responsible for revenues. According Goldman that NCAA restricts the ability of college athletes to earn outside income because of the time consumed by the sport itself. Even if a part time job is allowed for student athletes, it raises concerns about over-taxing a student athlete’s already fragmented time schedule and increasing the opportunity for boosters to make â€Å"illegal† payments to favored athletes (Acain). There wouldn’t be a need for boosters or part-time jobs if NCAA could allow increasing the scholarship aids for football athletes. A study on football and basketball individual with scholarships, both generating revenues, say that they had less money. Ernie chamber, in Parent’s article, introduced a bill to pay college athletes but was lacking persistent. One of his arguments were that athletes are not getting enough money to eat and wash their clothes. Former All- American football player at USC who admitted that even though he was getting money from the grants there still wasn’t enough because he was sending it back home ( came from a poor family) to his family. He noticed how he was struggling to put food in his fridge and how the school was selling his jersey making money off of him. California state senator said â€Å"it was unfair that men’s division 1 basketball or football players do not receive at least a portion of the money that athletes have earned for their school and that NCAA has kept quiet about discussing these issues over the past years† (Parent). If a portion of the revenue is distributed to the performers, food and other expenses would be easy access. Also illegal money would not be a problem if more was given to the athletes. Adding to reasons why the collegiate football players should be paid, they are risking their lives for free education with some support for expenses and hopes of making it to the professional level. A data of five teams from major college in the nation were surveyed during practices and games in the 1976 season. Data were based on during drills in practice and games of the season. The injury rate was calculated very high in 12 specific drills, practice games, and other activities. Practice games, drill that simulate real live game emphasis had the lowest injury exposure, but are the highest risk factor. Agility drills were calculated as the fewest injury rates. Calisthenics had no injury rates because it’s a warm-up drill that prepares for the body for the practice. The study, according to Cahill and Griffith, was to determine harmful factors to prevent in the future and in other schools. The drills that were calculated high are often practiced throughout football even till to day. Head injuries are deadliest results of playing football. A survey commissioned by the NFL indicated that it retires have been diagnosed as having dementia or other memory related disease at rates higher than the national population. Helmet manufacturers have begun on protecting against concussion by designing air releasing shock absorbers that could handle a wider range of forces than foam alone (Schawz). Even though it focuses on the concussion taken, it is still not effective in how the head postioned.Dave Halstead states in Schwarz’s article, as advanced as helmets have become, they do not yet protect against dramatic rotational, rather than linear, forces. The position of the head is essential to avoiding head injuries and major risks. Major injuries in football could cost your life and productive time. A 22 year old football player at frostburg state university in Maryland died from head trauma sustained on the field. Dreks sheely died late Sunday at university of Maryland R Adams Cowley Shock trauma center in Baltimore. According to Castillo, a spokesman for Frostburg State said sheely had been participating in â€Å"regular drills† with his teammates in Aug. 22 when he began feeling woozy. He was being helped off the field when he collapsed. This incident of dying is not likely, but has had cases like this 9 times in high school football. Head injury cases are at large with those who are paralyzed. Rutgers defensive tackle Eric LeGrand was paralyzed below the neck when making contact with player returning the ball against army. Doctors says, in â€Å"Rutgers football player paralyzed from neck down†, that he will remain in hospital for the near future. Legrand was headed to the Hackensack University Medical Center where he had emergency surgery overnight to keep stabilized after making the tackle against the returner. Tight end Kevin Everett, from buffalo bills, in 2007was memorized when he duck his neck making a tackle during second kickoff. He was paralyzed from the neck down with the same situation as LeGrand is in. These are the horrors and risks of playing football. College football players are struggling while the NCAA generates income off of their performance. NCAA distributes money thorough out the Division 1 members and only few is given to players.Even when revenue is increasing each year the same amount of money used to support college football athletes. College spends a lot on the athletic programs even in our declining economic times. As athletes, coaches and staffs stress the goal of graduating football players graduate at a rate of under 70 percent. It has increased since 1960 but it still doesn’t meet the NCAA emphasis on graduating in exchange for their performance. Football players from back in the 80’s till today still struggle the life of being a college football player with the financial aid. The amount of money supplied by the NCAA is unfortunately short for paying living expenses and for those who may send the money back home. Also more illegal attempts, boosters giving money and players selling their jerseys, that attract attention may be prevented by providing a little more to the aids. Finding sources of money becomes impossible because of the time that football consumes. Lastly, the game of football exposes football players to many injuries. Players dying to players being paralyzed are a risk that cost more than what there are given in college. Health insurance may pay for the minor injuries, but can it pay for death that is the last thing in a football players mind? These are the reason that football players should get paid, in an increase in their monthly income.